Transfer
of Power to the Peshwas
After the
death of Chhatrapati Shahu in 1749, a meeting was convened by Nanasaheb Peshwa
and attended by Maratha officials. It was unanimously agreed that all executive
powers for governing the state would be transferred to the Peshwas, marking a
significant shift in the power structure of the Maratha Empire.
Rise of
Modern Governance Institutions
During this
period, several modern governance institutions emerged, including village
panchayats, the village headman, and revenue officials overseeing groups of
villages. These systems, some of which continue to this day, provided stability
and organization at the local level. Additionally, a diplomatic corps was
established as the Peshwa needed ambassadors in various places, a practice that
contributed to the emergence of modern diplomacy.
The
Changing Composition of the Peshwa Army
The Peshwa’s
army, known as the Huzurat, had three key components: artillery, primarily
composed of Muslims and North Indians; infantry, also composed of Muslims and
North Indians with firearms; and cavalry, which mainly consisted of part-time
Maratha soldiers known as Shiledars. However, the introduction of war elephants
into the army was a strategic misstep. Over time, the Maratha army lost its
distinct character and became a mercenary force, critically dependent on
regular pay.
Meritocracy
to Hereditary Rule
Under
Bajirao Peshwa, appointments were made based on merit, allowing talented
individuals from humble backgrounds to rise to prominence. However, after his
time, appointments became increasingly hereditary, diluting the merit-based
system that had once been a hallmark of Maratha governance.
Breakdown
of Alliances and Internal Conflicts
The Marathas
had long maintained alliances with Rajput rulers since the time of Shivaji, but
this policy changed under Nanasaheb Peshwa. Involvement in the succession
dispute within the House of Jaipur, where Holkar and Shinde supported opposing
factions, strained relations with the Rajputs. Additionally, disputes erupted
between the Peshwas and other Maratha factions, such as the Gaekwads and
Bhonsles, further weakening internal unity.
Strategic
Importance of Punjab and Afghan Resistance
The invasion
by Nadir Shah in 1740 forced the Marathas to recognize the strategic importance
of Punjab. From 1753, a small Maratha garrison was stationed in Delhi to
protect the Mughal emperor. However, the Afghans, seeking to restore their
dominance, disliked the Maratha presence. Ahmad Shah Abdali, in particular,
sought to re-establish Afghan supremacy in Delhi, aided by the Rohillas, a
group of Afghans settled north of Delhi.
Maratha
Campaign and the Battle of Panipat
In 1760, the
Maratha army under Sadashiv Bhau, son of Chimnaji and brother of Bajirao,
reached Delhi with an army of about 200,000. However, the political landscape
was complicated by alliances and rivalries. The Marathas rejected the Jat ruler
Surajmal’s candidature for the post of Prime Minister, opting instead for
Shuja-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh. This decision cost them the crucial support
of the Jats and later, Shuja-ud-Daula also switched sides to join Abdali.
The terrain
around Panipat, dominated by Muslims of Afghan descent, further complicated the
Marathas’ efforts to secure supplies. Another blunder was carrying a large
number of non-combatants, including women and families, which hindered their
mobility.
Key
Events in the Battle
The Marathas
initially held the upper hand in the battle. However, a critical mistake
occurred when dismounted Maratha cavalrymen broke ranks and engaged in close
combat, forcing the artillery to cease firing. This proved fatal. When
Vishwasrao, the eldest son of the Peshwa, was struck by a bullet, Bhau,
distraught, left his elephant and joined the hand-to-hand combat. This loss of
command led to the Marathas' near-victory turning into a rout.
Despite
heavy casualties on both sides, Abdali’s forces managed to defeat the Marathas.
However, on their return journey, Abdali’s army was attacked by Sikhs, who
rescued many Maratha prisoners. Some Marathas even settled in the hills of the
north, with many marrying Sikh soldiers.
Analysis
and Long-Term Effects of the Panipat Defeat
- Failure to Form Alliances: Bhau failed to follow
Shivaji's policy of befriending the Rajputs, relying instead on
Shuja-ud-Daula, a Shia ruler, to counter Sunni Abdali, overlooking the
solidarity within the Islamic world.
- Missed Opportunities: The Marathas missed crucial
opportunities, such as failing to attack Abdali while he was crossing the
Yamuna River. Instead, they were preoccupied with celebrating their
earlier victory at Kunjpura, a premature celebration that proved costly.
- Strategic Missteps: Unlike Shivaji or Bajirao, who
would have traveled light, the Marathas were burdened by the large number
of families that accompanied the army. A considerable force under
Malharrao Holkar was assigned to protect them, diverting valuable manpower
from the battlefield.
- Loss of Command: The death of Vishwasrao and
Bhau’s emotional reaction led to a collapse in leadership. Despite being
on the brink of victory, the Maratha infantry broke ranks, and the battle
quickly turned against them.
Impact on
the Future of India
The
Marathas’ near-victory at Panipat showed the strength of their fighting
prowess, but their defeat shattered their offensive spirit. The Afghans,
however, suffered so greatly that they abandoned their dreams of ruling Delhi
and Hindustan. Abdali’s forces weakened, and Punjab soon came under the control
of the Sikhs, who established a powerful state with its capital in Lahore.
The failure
to harmonize the cavalry-based warfare of the Marathas with the infantry and
artillery-based tactics of their enemies contributed to their defeat. The lack
of strong alliances continued to plague the Marathas in their later struggles,
including their wars against the British. The Panipat debacle stands as a
reminder of the importance of unity, coordination, and strategic foresight in
military campaigns.
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